Slave Revolt — Resistance and Solidarity in North America

Gab1930s

36 min readOct 28, 2020

(In Some Many Different Ways of How African-American Slaves Rebel?)

Noteworthy: Some of the following historicity missing from the American people schools and society at-large, the point here is too bring and sufficient amount of attention to these key important times that injustices existed many many years ago. In so many ways pernicious allegations made against the African-American people was that our slave ancestors were either exceptionally “docile” or “content and loyal,” thus explaining their purported failure to rebel extensively. In America someday you will make the effort to truly pursue this history.

Slave Trade and Rebellions

Horne wisely does not arbitrarily choose a distinct “beginning” to this process. But he marks the Glorious Revolution of 1688 in England as an important moment because it facilitated the ascendancy of the merchant class and encouraged private merchant entrepreneurs to enter the slave trade. They did so with vigor and the slave trade escalated in intensity.

In response to this, the intensity and frequency of slave revolts increased as well throughout the 18th century. The book details many of these uprisings along with the hysteria they aroused among Europeans.

The island of Barbados, then a British colony, was a consistent place of rebellion. Ambitious plots were discovered there in 1676, 1683 and 1689. Jamaica also had a long history of revolts, with the Maroons forcing some concessions from London in the 1730s. The North American mainland was not free from rebellion, either. In 1712 a few dozen armed Africans killed nine settlers in a Manhattan outhouse. In 1739 the Stono Rebellion erupted in South Carolina, killing 21 whites.

These persistent rebellions demonstrated how dangerous and unstable the maintenance of the slave system would be. The profits from it were too handsome to resist, however, and the trade continued to accelerate despite the problems it created. This led to another predicament for London to worry about: the ratio of African slaves to white settlers.

As the slave trade expanded not only did revolts increase but also the sheer number of African slaves that had to be monitored and repressed. This volatile situation was the source of constant fear for white settlers. In Barbados, for example, the ratio of slaves to whites reached 20 to 1 at one point. Instability across the Caribbean led to slaves being sent to the mainland to be resold.

But the apparent resolution of this contradiction led directly to another one, for now the problem became the dramatic increase of slaves in North America. This is highlighted by the fact that in 1756 slaves made up 25% of New York City’s population.

How London dealt with this “problem” would greatly determine its future relationship with the settlers on the mainland. However, other forces would also influence their course of action.

A great strength of this book is the layered contextualization brought to critically analyze what happened in 1776. One major focus is the inter-imperial rivalry among Great Britain, Spain and France that had been raging for centuries.

Of course there are many aspects of this rivalry that one can examine, but the main issue Horne explores is the use of African troops by Spain and France for their exploits in the Caribbean as well as to antagonize the settlements of Great Britain on the North American mainland.

Spain played a role in the Stono Rebellion of 1739, and it was thought that slaves felt they could participate because they could flee to Spanish Florida. By this time, Africans were among the most important components of the Florida militia. Another major provocation from Spain came with an Edict in 1733 that promised to free all slaves who fled to Spanish Florida from the Carolinas.

In 1741 plots were discovered in New York that involved both Spain and France conspiring against Great Britain with the use of armed Africans. These actions from London’s imperial rivals naturally set dangerous examples for Africans still enslaved under British rule.

London itself seriously considered using armed Africans as well for their imperial adventures in the Caribbean and India. This would be hard for North American colonists to stomach, of course, for their whole model of development depended on the brutal repression of Africans.

Here we begin to see how the fundamental interests of Great Britain and the American colonies diverged, and how slavery was at the heart of it. We also see how Africans cleverly used the imperial rivalries to further their own interests. https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/newspape/atc/4502.html.

1526-The first recorded slave revolt at San Miguel The Africans escape in what is the first recorded slave revolt in North America. Estevan, the first identified Muslim in North America, lands in Florida as a Moroccan guide to the Spaniards. During the ensuing years of the slave trade, as many as 20% of West African slaves brought to North America are Muslim. Scholars have disputed the location of this colony, since the expedition did not relate in which direction they traveled from Winyah Bay. Some historians have asserted that Ayllón went north, reaching the Chesapeake Bay.

1619-August 20. Twenty Africans arrived in Jamestown, Virginia, aboard a Dutch ship. They were the first blacks to be forcibly settled as involuntary laborers in the North American British Colonies. https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html.

1641-Massachusetts was the first colony to legalize slavery by statute. https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html.

1644-Eleven Black servants of New York Amsterdam, later New York City, filed a petition for freedom. The first legal protest in America. In the United States, slavery is often thought of as a Southern institution. Many people today are unaware of the extent of slavery in the eighteen and nineteenth century North, particularly New England. Long thought of as the birthplace of the anti-slavery movement, New England has a more complex history of slavery and slave trading than many realize. In the four hundred years after Columbus first sailed to the New World, some twelve million Africans were brought to the Americas as slaves. About 500,000 of these people came to mainland North America.

1663-September 13. The first documented attempt at a rebellion by slaves took place in Gloucester County, Virginia. https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html

1664-Maryland was the first state to try to discourage by law the marriage of white women to black men.https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html.

1688-February 18. The Quakers of Germantown, Pennsylvania, passed the first formal antislavery resolution. https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html

1690-In 1690, Mr. Isaac Morril of New Jersey came to Newbury, Massachusetts, and attempted to get the African and Indian slaves to flee to the French in Canada and then join the latter in an attack upon the English. One Black, a slave of Mr. Moody, as well as another Jersey person, George Major, were implicated, but their fate is not known. [William and Mary College Quarterly Historical Magazine, X, p. 177].

1711-In South Carolina, there were a series of rebellious activities. According to the provincial legislature, the inhabitants were “in great fear and terror” by the activities of “several Negroes [who] keep out, armed, and robbing and plundering houses and plantations.” These rebels were led by a slave named Sebastian, and their activities were not in check until finally tracked down and killed by an Indian hunter. [Holland, Edwin Clifford. A refutation of the Calumnies circulated against the Southern and Western States, respecting the institution and existence of slavery among them, to which is added, a Minute and Particular Account of the Actual State ad Conditions of Their Negro Population. Together with Historical Notices of all the insurrections that have taken place since the settlement of the country. Reprinted 1969 by Negro Universities Press: A Division of Greenwood Publishing Corp., New York.]

1712-Early in April, in New York City, about 25 or 30 slaves including two indigenous Americans, Coromantee (Asante) and Paw Paw (Nagoes — Nigerians) set fire to building and, armed with a few guns, clubs, and knives, waited for the whites to approach. Several did, and were attacked by the slaves, who killed about nine men and serious wounded six others. The Africans were joined by some Spanish, and Mestizoes, who had been captured at sea. It was reported by contemporary witness that according to an African custom they sucked the blood of each other hands as a pledge of absolute secrecy. Their gunfire attracted the attention of Governor Hunter, who ordered a cannon to be fired and sent soldiers from Twenty-one enslaved Africans were executed; six including a pregnant woman were pardoned. “Some were burnt others hanged, one broke on the wheele, and one hung alive in chains in the town…” In summary, of those convicted one was broken on the wheel, another hanged alive in chains; 19 more were executed on the gallows, or at the stake, one being “burned with a slow fire, that he may continue in torment for eight or ten hours and continue burning in said fire until he be dead and consumed to ashes” [Letter of Governor Robert Hunter to the Lords of Trade, in E. B. O’Callaghan, (ed.), Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New York, (Albany, 1855), V, 1707–1733, 341–342].

1720-Enslaved Africans of Charleston, South Carolina, rose up against their masters and attacked the white people in their homes and on the streets. The rebels were organized and killed a man named Benjamin Cattle, a white woman, and a Negro boy. A force was raised and they were pursued, and 23 of them were captured, six convicted, three executed, and three escaped. [Joshua Coffin, Account of some of the Principal Slave Insurrections. New York: Published by the American Anti-Slavery Society, 1860 p. 11]

1739-The Stono Rebellion was the largest slave revolt ever staged in the 13 colonies. On Sunday, Sept. 9, 1739, a day free of labor, about 20 slaves under the leadership of a man named Jemmy provided whites with a painful lesson on the African desire for liberty. Many members of the group were seasoned soldiers, either from the Yamasee War or from their experience in their homes in Angola, where they were captured and sold, and had been trained in the use of weapons.

1741-The New York City Conspiracy of 1741. With about 1,700 blacks living in a city of some 7,000 whites appearing determined to grind every person of African descent under their heel, some form of revenge seemed inevitable. In early 1741, Fort George in New York burned to the ground. Fires erupted elsewhere in the city — four in one day — and in New Jersey and on Long Island. Several white people claimed they had heard slaves bragging about setting the fires and threatening worse. They concluded that a revolt had been planned by secret black societies and gangs, inspired by a conspiracy of priests and their Catholic minions — white, black, brown, free and slave.

1767-Act for imposing a duty on the importation of enslaved people into Massachusetts (draft), [20 March] 1767. Draft of a bill to impose a duty on the importation of enslaved people into Massachusetts, in an attempt to curtail or eliminate the slave trade. The Massachusetts legislature voted on the bill between 17–20 March 1767. If approved, the bill was to have taken effect from April 1767 to April 1768, but it was “unanimously non-concurred.” It is signed by Thomas Cushing (1725–1788), the speaker of the Massachusetts House of Representatives. This bill is very similar to another manuscript draft act.

1770-March 5. Crispus Attucks, an escaped slave, was among the five victims in the Boston Massacre. He is said to have been the first to fall. https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html.

1772-Jean Baptiste Point DuSable decided to build a trading post near Lake Michigan, thus becoming the first permanent resident of the settlement that became Chicago. https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html.

1775-April 19. Free blacks fight with the Minutemen in the initial skirmishes of the Revolutionary War at Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts.

June 17. Peter Salem and Salem Poor were two blacks commended for their service on the American side at the Battle of Bunker Hill. https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html.

1777-July 2. Vermont was the first state to abolish slavery.

November 1. The African Free School of New York City was opened.

December 31. George Washington reversed previous policy and allowed the recruitment of blacks as soldiers. Some 5,000 would participate on the American side before the end of the Revolution.https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html

1787-April 12. Richard Allen and Absalom Jones organized the Free African Society, a mutual self-help group in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

July 13. The Continental Congress forbade slavery in the region northwest of the Ohio River by the Northwest Ordinance.

September. The Constitution of the United States allowed a male slave to count as three-fifths of a man in determining representation in the House of Representatives.https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html

1791-Benjamin Banneker published the first almanac by a black.https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html

1793-February 12. Congress passed the first Fugitive Slave Law.https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html

March 14. Eli Whitney obtained a patent for his cotton gin, a device that paved the way for the massive expansion of slavery in the South.https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html.

1797-August 30. A slave revolt near Richmond, Virginia, led by Gabriel Prosser and Jack Bowley, was first postponed and then betrayed. More than 40 blacks were eventually executed.

South.https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html

1800’s-Gabriel’s Conspiracy, 1800. Born prophetically in 1776 on the Prosser plantation, just six miles north of Richmond, Va., and home (to use the term loosely) to 53 slaves, a slave named Gabriel would hatch a plot, with freedom as its goal, that was emblematic of the era in which he lived.https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html

1804-January 5. The Ohio legislature passed “Black Laws” designed to restrict the legal rights of free blacks. These laws were part of the trend to increasingly severe restrictions on all blacks in both North and South before the Civil War.https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html

1808-January 1. The federal law prohibiting the importation of African slaves went into effect. It was largely circumvented.https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html

1811- Between 300 and 500 slaves, NOW: For years, the story of the German Coast slave revolt — as it has become known, named after the area originally settled by German pioneers — was a largely overlooked part of history, by the design of slaveholders. That has changed in recent years, fueled by recent scholarship, most notably historian Daniel Rasmussen’s 2011 book “American Uprising: The Untold Story of America’s Largest Slave Revolt,” which finally told that story in full — and which went on to become a New York Times best-seller.

1829-September. David Walker’s militant antislavery pamphlet, An Appeal to the Colored People of the World, was in circulation in the South. This work was the first of its kind by a black.

September 20–24. The first National Negro Convention met in Philadelphia.https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html.

1831-Nat Turner’s Rebellion, 1831. Born on Oct. 2, 1800, in Southampton County, Va., the week before Gabriel was hanged, Nat Turner impressed family and friends with an unusual sense of purpose, even as a child. Driven by prophetic visions and joined by a host of followers — but with no clear goals — on August 22, 1831, Turner and about 70 armed slaves and free blacks set off to slaughter the white neighbors who enslaved them.

1839-July. The slaves carried on the Spanish ship, Amistad, took over the vessel and sailed it to Montauk on Long Island. They eventually won their freedom in a case taken to the Supreme Court. Philadelphia.https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html

1843-The National Negro Convention Movement, of 1843 was held in Buffalo, New York drawing some seventy delegates a dozen states. Among the delegates were young, rising leaders in the African American community including Frederick Douglass, William Wells Brown, Charles B. Ray and Charles L. Remond. Twenty-seven year old Henry Highland Garnet, a newspaper editor and pastor of a Presbyterian Church in Troy, New York, however captured most of the attention of the delegates with his “An Address to the Slaves of the United States” in which he called for their open rebellion. The speech failed by one vote of being endorsed by the convention.

1850-Harriet Tubman, Abolitionist and suffragist Harriet Tubman, perhaps the most famous conductor for the Underground Railroad, engineered her first rescue mission in December of 1850. The exact date is unknown. Tubman, who had escaped slavery on the Eastern Shore of Maryland in Sept.

1857-March 6. The Dred Scott decision of the Supreme Court denied that blacks were citizens of the United States and denied the power of Congress to restrict slavery in any federal territory.https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html

1859-October 16,A native of Connecticut, John Brown struggled to support his large family and moved restlessly from state to state throughout his life, becoming a passionate opponent of slavery along the way. After assisting in the Underground Railroad out of Missouri and engaging in the bloody struggle between pro– and anti–slavery forces in Kansas in the 1850s, Brown grew anxious to strike a more extreme blow for the cause. https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/black-history-milestones.

1861-August 23. James Stone of Ohio enlisted to become the first black to fight for the Union during the Civil War. He was very light skinned and was married to a white woman. His racial identity was revealed after his death in 1862.https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html

1861-Civil War and Emancipation,President Abraham Lincoln’s antislavery views were well established, and his election as the nation’s first Republican president had been the catalyst that pushed the first southern states to secede in late 1860, the Civil War at its outset was not a war to abolish slavery. Lincoln sought first and foremost to preserve the Union, and he knew that few people even in the North — let alone the border slave states still loyal to Washington — would have supported a war against slavery in 1861. https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/black-history-milestones

1862-July 17. Congress allowed the enlistment of blacks in the Union Army. Some black units precede this date, but they were disbanded as unofficial. Some 186,000 blacks served; of these 38,000 died.https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html

1863-African American troops in the civil war, Volunteers began to respond, and in May 1863 the Government established the Bureau of Colored Troops to manage the burgeoning numbers of black soldiers. By the end of the Civil War, roughly 179,000 black men (10% of the Union Army) served as soldiers in the U.S. Army and another 19,000 served in the Navy.

1865-December 18. The Thirteenth Amendment, outlawing slavery, was passed by Congress.https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html

1866-Edward G. Walker and Charles L. Mitchell were the first blacks to sit in an American legislature, that of Massachusetts.https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html

1896-May 18, the U.S. Supreme Court issued its verdict in Plessy v. Ferguson, a case that represented the first major test of the meaning of the 14th Amendment’s provision of full and equal citizenship to African Americans. https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/black-history-milestones

1898-Journalists T. Thomas Fortune, born Oct. 3, 1856, Marianna, Fla., U.S. — died June 2, 1928, Philadelphia, Pa.), the leading black American journalist of the late 19th century.

The son of slaves, Fortune attended a Freedmen’s Bureau school for a time after the Civil War and eventually became a compositor for a black newspaper in Washington, D.C. Moving to New York City about 1880, he soon began a career in journalism as editor and publisher of a newspaper first called the New York Globe (1882–84), then the New York Freeman (1884–87), and finally the New York Age, editing the latter (with interruptions) from 1887 until he sold it in 1907. In his well-known editorials in the Age, Fortune defended the civil rights of both Northern and Southern blacks and spoke out against racial discrimination and segregation. He also wrote the book Black and White (1884), in which he condemned the exploitation of black labour by both agriculture and industry in the post-Reconstruction South.

1909-W.E.B. Dubois formed, NAACP, William Edward Burghardt Du Bois (February 23, 1868 — August 27, 1963) was an American civil rights activist, leader, Pan-Africanist, sociologist, educator, historian, writer, editor, poet, and scholar. He was born and raised in Great Barrington, Massachusetts. He had two children with his wife, Nina Gomer. He became a naturalized citizen of Ghana in 1963 at the age of 95 — the year of his death.

In 1905, Du Bois was a founder and general secretary of the Niagara Movement, an African American protest group of scholars and professionals. Du Bois founded and edited the Moon (1906) and the Horizon (1907–1910) as organs for the Niagara Movement.

In 1909, Du Bois was among the founders of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and from 1910 to 1934 served it as director of publicity and research, a member of the board of directors, and founder and editor of The Crisis, its monthly magazine.

1920- Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), primarily in the United States, organization founded by Marcus Garvey, dedicated to racial pride, economic self-sufficiency, and the formation of an independent Black nation in Africa. 1914 The UNIVERSAL NEGRO IMPROVEMENT ASSN. (UNIA), active in Cleveland by 1921, was a branch of an international movement founded in 1914 that stressed black pride, racial unity of AFRICAN AMERICANS, and the need to redeem Africa from white rule.

1920-In the 1920s, the great migration of Black Americans from the rural South to the urban North sparked an African American cultural renaissance that took its name from the New York City neighborhood of Harlem but became a widespread movement in cities throughout the North and West. Also known as the Black Renaissance or the New Negro Movement, the Harlem Renaissance marked the first time that mainstream publishers and critics turned their attention seriously to African American literature, music, art and politics. Blues singer Bessie Smith, pianist Jelly Roll Morton, bandleader Louis Armstrong, composer Duke Ellington, dancer Josephine Baker and actor Paul Robeson were among the leading entertainment talents of the Harlem Renaissance, while Paul Laurence Dunbar, James Weldon Johnson, Claude McKay, Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston were some of its most eloquent writers. https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/black-history-milestones

1934-The Honorable Elijah Muhammad, was born on or about Oct. 7, 1897 in Sandersville, Georgia. The exact date of his birth remains unknown because record keeping in rural Georgia for the descendants of slaves was not kept current, according to historians and family members. Nevertheless, the Honorable Elijah Muhammad said his birth took place some time in the first or second week of October in 1897 and set forth Oct. 7th as the anniversary date of his birth. Indeed, life in the rural South at the turn of the century was quite hard. Poverty and survival were at war with each other. Elijah Poole, the son of a minister, and whose parents, William (later named Wali) and Marie Poole, had 12 other children, had to quit school after barely finishing the third grade to work in the fields as a sharecropper so his family could eat. Hence, in 1931, after hearing his first lecture at the Temple of Islam, Elijah Poole was overwhelmed by the message and immediately accepted it. Soon thereafter, Elijah Poole invited and convinced his entire family to accept the religion of Islam.

The Founder of the Nation of Islam gave him the name “Karriem” and made him a minister. Later he was promoted to the position of “Supreme Minister” and his name was changed to Muhammad. “The name ‘Poole’ was never my name,” he would later write, “nor was it my father’s name. It was the name the white slave-master of my grandfather after the so-called freedom of my fathers.” Mr. Muhammad quickly became an integral part of the Temple of Islam. For the next three and one-half years, Mr. Muhammad was personally taught by his Teacher non-stop. The Muslim community, in addition to establishing religious centers of worship, began to start businesses under the aegis of economic development that focuses on buying and selling between and among Black companies. Mr. Muhammad establishes a newspaper, “The Final Call to Islam,” in 1934. This would be the first of many publications he would produce.

1941-A. Phillip Randolph and Bayard Rustin, force’s President Franklin D. Roosevelt, The March on Washington Movement (MOWM), 1941–1946, organized by activists A. Philip Randolph and Bayard Rustin, was a tool designed to pressure the U.S. government into providing fair working opportunities for African Americans and desegregating the armed forces by threat of mass marches on Washington, D.C. during World War II. When President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 in 1941, prohibiting discrimination in the defense industry under contract to federal agencies, Randolph and collaborators called-off the initial march.

Randolph continued to promote non-violent actions to advance goals for African Americans. Future civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. and other younger men were strongly influenced by Randolph and his ideals and methods.

1947-Congress of Racial Equality (CORE); The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) was founded in 1942 by a group of students in Chicago. … In early 1947, CORE announced plans to send eight white and eight black men into the Deep South to test the Supreme Court ruling that declared segregation in interstate travel unconstitutional. Founded in 1942 by an interracial group of students in Chicago, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) pioneered the use of nonviolent direct action in America’s civil rights struggle. Along with its parent organization, the Fellowship of Reconciliation (FOR), CORE members provided advice and support to Martin Luther King during the Montgomery bus boycott. King worked with CORE throughout the late 1950s and into the mid-1960s, when CORE abandoned its dedication to nonviolence and adopted black separatist policies.

Early CORE activists James Farmer, Bayard Rustin, Homer Jack, and George Houser had all been affiliated with FOR, an international peace and justice organization. Influenced by Gandhi, in the 1940s CORE used sit-ins and other nonviolent direct actions to integrate Chicago restaurants and businesses. In 1947 CORE organized the Journey of Reconciliation, a multi-state integrated bus ride through the upper South in order to test the previous year’s Supreme Court ruling against segregation in interstate travel. This precursor to the 1961 Freedom Rides was met with minimal violence, although several of the riders were arrested, and two were sentenced to work on a chain gang in North Carolina. The murder of three CORE workers, Michael Schwerner, Andrew Goodman, and James Chaney, in Mississippi in the summer of 1964, coupled with the limited success of MFDP, led many activists, including some in CORE, to become disenchanted with nonviolence. By 1966 a power struggle within CORE forced Farmer to step down as national director, leaving the more militant Floyd McKissick in his place. After King worked with McKissick during the summer of 1966 on the Meredith March Against Fear, CORE adopted a platform based on Black Power and limited white involvement in the organization.

Modern Decades of African Americans Protest

1952-After keeping statistics kept for 71 years, Tuskegee reported that this was first year with no lynchings.https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html.

1954- May 17, the U.S. Supreme Court delivered its verdict in Brown v. Board of Education, ruling unanimously that racial segregation in public schools violated the 14th Amendment’s mandate of equal protection of the laws of the U.S. Constitution to any person within its jurisdiction. Oliver Brown, the lead plaintiff in the case, was one of almost 200 people from five different states who had joined related NAACP cases brought before the Supreme Court since 1938. https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/black-history-milestones.

1955-Rose Parks;

Rosa Parks’ Bus, In 1955, African Americans were still required by a Montgomery, Alabama, city ordinance to sit in the back half of city buses and to yield their seats to white riders if the front half of the bus, reserved for whites, was full.

But on December 1, 1955, African American seamstress Rosa Parks was commuting home on Montgomery’s Cleveland Avenue bus from her job at a local department store. She was seated in the front row of the “colored section.” When the white seats filled, the driver, J. Fred Blake, asked Parks and three others to vacate their seats. The other black riders complied, but Parks refused.

She was arrested and fined $10, plus $4 in court fees. This was not Parks’ first encounter with Blake. In 1943, she had paid her fare at the front of a bus he was driving, then exited so she could re-enter through the back door, as required. Blake pulled away before she could re-board the bus.

1957-Central High School integrated, September, The Little Rock Nine forming a study group after being prevented from entering Little Rock’s Central High School. In Arkansas, Governor Orval Faubus made resistance to desegregation a central part of his successful 1956 reelection campaign. The following September, after a federal court ordered the desegregation of Central High School, located in the state capital of Little Rock, Faubus called out the Arkansas National Guard to prevent nine African American students from entering the school. He was later forced to call off the guard, and in the tense standoff that followed, TV cameras captured footage of white mobs converging on the “Little Rock Nine” outside the high school. For millions of viewers throughout the country, the unforgettable images provided a vivid contrast between the angry forces of white supremacy and the quiet, dignified resistance of the African American students. https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/black-history-milestones.

1960-February 1. Sit-ins in Greensboro, North Carolina, initiated a wave of similar protests throughout the South.

April 15–17. The Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee was founded in Raleigh, North Carolina.https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html.

1961-Malcolm X, born 1925 Malcolm X is born Malcolm Little in Omaha, Nebraska, also known as el-Hajj Malik el-Shabazz, was an African-American civil rights activist, political leader, minister and revolutionary who was prominently known for being a national figure in the Nation of Islam, as well showing race pride and black nationalism in the 1950s and 1960s. After his abrupt departure from the NOI in 1964, he would later on become more aligned with Pan-Africanism and form the Organization for Afro-American Unity. In this particular timeframe, however, these views surround his visit to Howard University on October 30, 1961, while still being a part of the NOI. On this particular day, Malcolm X would debate civil rights activist and integrationist leader Bayard Rustin at Howard University’s Cramton Auditorium. Michael R. Winston, former Howard University provost and chief academic officer in 2014, was the debate moderator for the event.

1962-In 1962, however, a crisis erupted when the state-funded University of Mississippi (known as “Ole Miss”) admitted a Black man, James Meredith. After nine years in the Air Force, Meredith had studied at the all–Black Jackson State College and applied repeatedly to Ole Miss with no success. With the aid of the NAACP, Meredith filed a lawsuit alleging that the university had discriminated against him because of his race. In September 1962, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Meredith’s favor, but state officials including Governor Ross Barnett vowed to block his admission.

When Meredith arrived at Ole Miss under the protection of federal forces including U.S. marshals, a mob of more than 2,000 people formed on the Oxford, Mississippi campus. Two people were killed and close to 200 injured in the ensuing chaos, which ended only after President Kennedy’s administration sent some 31,000 troops to restore order. Meredith went on to graduate from Ole Miss in 1963, but the struggle to integrate higher education continued. Later that year, Governor George Wallace blocked the enrollment of a Black student at the University of Alabama, pledging to “stand in the schoolhouse door.” Though Wallace was eventually forced by the federalized National Guard to integrate the university, he became a prominent symbol of the ongoing resistance to desegregation nearly a decade after Brown v. Board of Education. https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/black-history-milestones.

1963-Birmingham Church Bombed, In mid-September, white supremacists bombed the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama during Sunday services; four young African American girls were killed in the explosion. The church bombing was the third in 11 days, after the federal government had ordered the integration of Alabama’s school system.

Governor George Wallace was a leading foe of desegregation, and Birmingham had one of the strongest and most violent chapters of the Ku Klux Klan. Birmingham had become a leading focus of the civil rights movement by the spring of 1963, when Martin Luther King was arrested there while leading supporters of his Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in a nonviolent campaign of demonstrations against segregation.

While in jail, King wrote a letter to local white ministers justifying his decision not to call off the demonstrations in the face of continued bloodshed at the hands of local law enforcement officials, led by Birmingham’s police commissioner, Eugene “Bull” Connor. “Letter from a Birmingham Jail” was published in the national press even as images of police brutality against protesters in Birmingham–including children being attacked by police dogs and knocked off their feet by fire hoses–sent shock waves around the world, helping to build crucial support for the civil rights movement. https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/black-history-milestones.

1963-March on Washington, largest protest in the history of America, March on Washington, in full March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, political demonstration held in Washington, D.C., in 1963 by civil rights leaders to protest racial discrimination and to show support for major civil rights legislation that was pending in Congress. Although enslaved African Americans were legally freed from slavery under the Thirteenth Amendment, granted citizenship in the Fourteenth Amendment, and men elevated to the status of citizens and were granted full voting rights by the Fifteenth Amendment in the years soon after the end of the American Civil War, after the Reconstruction era, conservative Democrats regained power and imposed many restrictions on people of color in the South. At the turn of the century, Southern states passed constitutions and laws that disenfranchised most blacks and many poor whites, excluding them from the political system. The whites imposed social, economic, and political repression against blacks into the 1960s, under a system of legal discrimination and custom, known as Jim Crow laws, which were pervasive in the American South. Blacks suffered discrimination from private businesses as well, and most were prevented from voting. Twenty-one states prohibited interracial marriage.

1963-April 3. Under the leadership of Martin Luther King, Jr., blacks began a campaign against discrimination in Birmingham.

June-August. Civil rights protests took place in most major urban areas.

August 28. The March on Washington was the largest civil rights demonstration ever. Martin Luther King, Jr., delivered his “I Have a Dream” speech.https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html

1964-Civil Rights Act of July, in November 1963. It was left to Lyndon Johnson (not previously known for his support of civil rights) to push the Civil Rights Act — the most far-reaching act of legislation supporting racial equality in American history — through Congress in June 1964. At its most basic level, the act gave the federal government more power to protect citizens against discrimination on the basis of race, religion, sex or national origin. It mandated the desegregation of most public accommodations, including lunch counters, bus depots, parks and swimming pools, and established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to ensure equal treatment of minorities in the workplace. The act also guaranteed equal voting rights by removing biased registration requirements and procedures, and authorized the U.S. Office of Education to provide aid to assist with school desegregation. In a televised ceremony on July 2, 1964, Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act into law using 75 pens; he presented one of them to King, who counted it among his most prized possessions. https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/black-history-milestones.

1964-Freedom Summer and the ‘Mississippi Burning’ Murders, June, In the summer of 1964, civil rights organizations including the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) urged white students from the North to travel to Mississippi, where they helped register Black voters and build schools for Black children. The organizations believed the participation of white students in the so-called “Freedom Summer” would bring increased visibility to their efforts. The summer had barely begun, however, when three volunteers — Michael Schwerner and Andrew Goodman, both white New Yorkers, and James Chaney, a Black Mississippian — disappeared on their way back from investigating the burning of an African American church by the Ku Klux Klan. After a massive FBI investigation (code–named “Mississippi Burning”) their bodies were discovered on August 4 buried in an earthen dam near Philadelphia, in Neshoba County, Mississippi. Although the culprits in the case — white supremacists who included the county’s deputy sheriff — were soon identified, the state made no arrests. The Justice Department eventually indicted 19 men for violating the three volunteers’ civil rights (the only charge that would give the federal government jurisdiction over the case) and after a three-year-long legal battle, the men finally went on trial in Jackson, Mississippi. In October 1967, an all-white jury found seven of the defendants guilty and acquitted the other nine. Though the verdict was hailed as a major civil rights victory — it was the first time anyone in Mississippi had been convicted for a crime against a civil rights worker — the judge in the case gave out relatively light sentences, and none of the convicted men served more than six years behind bars. https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/black-history-milestones.

1965-President Lyndon Johnson addressed a joint session of Congress, calling for federal legislation to ensure protection of the voting rights of African Americans. The result was the Voting Rights Act, which Congress passed in August 1965.The Voting Rights Act sought to overcome the legal barriers that still existed at the state and local level preventing Black citizens from exercising the right to vote given them by the 15th Amendment. Specifically, it banned literacy tests as a requirement for voting, mandated federal oversight of voter registration in areas where tests had previously been used and gave the U.S. attorney general the duty of challenging the use of poll taxes for state and local elections.Along with the Civil Rights Act of the previous year, the Voting Rights Act was one of the most expansive pieces of civil rights legislation in American history, and it greatly reduced the disparity between Black and white voters in the U.S. In Mississippi alone, the percentage of eligible Black voters registered to vote increased from 5 percent in 1960 to nearly 60 percent in 1968. In the mid 1960s, 70 African Americans were serving as elected officials in the South, while by the turn of the century there were some 5,000. In the same time period, the number of Black people serving in Congress increased from six to about 40. https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/black-history-milestones.

1966-Rise of Black Power, After the heady rush of the civil rights movement’s first years, anger and frustration was increasing among many African Americans, who saw clearly that true equality — social, economic and political — still eluded them. In the late 1960s and early ’70s, this frustration fueled the rise of the Black Power movement. According to then–SNCC chairman Stokely Carmichael, who first popularized the term “Black power” in 1966, the traditional civil rights movement and its emphasis on nonviolence, did not go far enough, and the federal legislation it had achieved failed to address the economic and social disadvantages facing Black Americans.Black Power was a form of both self-definition and self-defense for African Americans; it called on them to stop looking to the institutions of white America — which were believed to be inherently racist — and act for themselves, by themselves, to seize the gains they desired, including better jobs, housing and education. Also in 1966, Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale, college students in Oakland, California, founded the Black Panther Party.

While its original mission was to protect Black people from white brutality by sending patrol groups into Black neighborhoods, the Panthers soon developed into a Marxist group that promoted Black Power by urging African Americans to arm themselves and demand full employment, decent housing and control over their own communities. Clashes ensued between the Panthers and police in California, New York and Chicago, and in 1967 Newton was convicted of voluntary manslaughter after killing a police officer. His trial brought national attention to the organization, which at its peak in the late 1960s boasted some 2,000 members.

https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/black-history-milestones.

1966-Huey P. Newton, and Bobby Seale, Who was, Huey Percy Newton (February 17, 1942 — August 22, 1989) was an African-American political activist, author and revolutionary who, along with fellow Merritt College student Bobby Seale, co-founded the Black Panther Party (1966–1982).

1967-H. Rap Brown, Jamil Abdullah Al-Amin (born Hubert Gerold Brown; October 4, 1943), formerly known as H. Rap Brown, was the fifth chairman of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee in the 1960s, and during a short-lived (six months) alliance between SNCC and the Black Panther Party, he served as their minister of justice. Brown was born in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. He became known as H. Rap Brown during the early 1960s. His activism in the Civil Rights Movement included involvement with the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), of which he was named chairman in 1967. That same year, he was arrested in Cambridge, Maryland, and charged with inciting to riot after he gave a speech there.

He is perhaps most famous for his proclamations during that period that “violence is as American as cherry pie” and that “If America don’t come around, we’re gonna burn it down.” He is also known for his autobiography, Die Nigger Die! He is currently serving a life sentence for murder following the shooting of two Fulton County Sheriff’s deputies in 2000. Later another man confessed to committing the murder but this was rejected by courts.

1967-May 1-October 1. This was the worst summer for racial disturbances in United States history. More than 40 riots and 100 other disturbances occurred. speech.https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html.

1968-Fair Housing Act, April, The Fair Housing Act of 1968, meant as a follow-up to the Civil Rights Act of 1964, marked the last great legislative achievement of the civil rights era. Originally intended to extend federal protection to civil rights workers, it was later expanded to address racial discrimination in the sale, rental or financing of housing units. After the bill passed the Senate by an exceedingly narrow margin in early April, it was thought that the increasingly conservative House of Representatives, wary of the growing strength and militancy of the Black Power movement, would weaken it considerably speech. On the day of the Senate vote, however, Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated in Memphis. Pressure to pass the bill increased amid the wave of national remorse that followed, and after a strictly limited debate the House passed the Fair Housing Act on April 10. President Johnson signed it into law the following day. Over the next years, however, there was little decrease in housing segregation, and violence arose from Black efforts to seek housing in white neighborhoods. From 1950 to 1980, the total Black population in America’s urban centers increased from 6.1 million to 15.3 million; during this same time period, white Americans steadily moved out of the cities into the suburbs, taking with them many of the employment opportunities Black people needed. In this way, the ghetto — an inner city community plagued by high unemployment, crime and other social ills — became an ever more prevalent fact of urban Black life. https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html.

1968-Reverend Ralph D. Abernathy, Ralph D. Abernathy was a Baptist minister who, with Martin Luther King Jr., organized the historic Montgomery bus boycotts. He co-founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference and was a major civil rights figure, serving as a close adviser to King and later assuming SCLC presidency.

1968-April 4. Martin Luther King was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee. In the following week riots occurred in at least 125 places throughout the country. speech.https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html

1969-The Student Union Building at Cornell University students seized, Members of Students for a Democratic Society — students far to the left of … On April 20, 1969, student leader Eric Evans reads a statement following the takeover. … of Students for a Democratic Society, seized the administration building; …

1972-Shirley Chisholm Runs for President,Representative Shirley Chisholm of New York became a national symbol of both movements as the first major party African American candidate and the first female candidate for president of the United States.

A former educational consultant and a founder of the National Women’s Caucus, Chisholm became the first Black woman in Congress in 1968, when she was elected to the House from her Brooklyn district. Though she failed to win a primary, Chisholm received more than 150 votes at the Democratic National Convention. She claimed she never expected to win the nomination. It went to George McGovern, who lost to Richard Nixon in the general election. The outspoken Chisholm, who attracted little support among African–American men during her presidential campaign, later told the press: “I’ve always met more discrimination being a woman than being Black. When I ran for the Congress, when I ran for president, I met more discrimination as a woman than for being Black. Men are men. https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html.

1974-In this year five delegates and observers from America, attended the Sixth Pan-African Congress in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The Sixth Pan-African Congress convened at the University of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania and was hosted by the Tanganyika African National Union, June 3–13, 1974. The congress was an international forum poised to address the problems facing African people. The Sixth Pan-African Congress Records document individuals who attended the conference, as well as a record of those who were invited but did not attend. Also included is correspondence from each of the districts involved, as well as financial and fundraising records, press material, position papers, committee files, and news clippings.

1978-The Bakke Decision and Affirmative Action, the term “affirmative action” was used to refer to policies and initiatives aimed at compensating for past discrimination on the basis of race, color, sex, religion or national origin. President John F. Kennedy first used the phrase in 1961, in an executive order calling on the federal government to hire more African Americans. By the mid-’70s, many universities were seeking to increase the presence of minority and female faculty and students on their campuses. The University of California at Davis, for example, designated 16 percent of its medical school’s admissions spots for minority applicants.After Allan Bakke, a white California man, applied twice without success, he sued U.C. Davis, claiming that his grades and test scores were higher than those of minority students who were admitted and accusing UC Davis of “reverse discrimination.” In June 1978, in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the use of strict racial quotas was unconstitutional and that Bakke should be admitted; on the other hand, it held that institutions of higher education could rightfully use race as a criterion in admissions decisions in order to ensure diversity.

In the wake of the Bakke verdict, affirmative action continued to be a controversial and divisive issue, with a growing opposition movement claiming that the so–called “racial playing field” was now equal and that African Americans no longer needed special consideration to overcome their disadvantages. In subsequent decisions over the next decades, the Court limited the scope of affirmative action programs, while several U.S. states prohibited racially based affirmative action. https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html.

1980-May 18. Racial disturbances beginning on May 17 resulted in 15 deaths in Miami, Florida. This was the worst riot since those in Watts and Detroit in the 1960s. speech.https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html

1981- 300,000–500,000, demonstrators from labor and civil rights organizations protested the social policies of the Reagan administration in Solidarity Day march in Washington, D.C. The Solidarity Day marches were a pair of large political rallies in support of organized labor that took place in Washington, D.C. on September 19, 1981 and August 31, 1991. Approximately 250,000–500,000 people took part in each march.

1992-acquittal of white police officers in Los Angeles, On April 29, 1992, the 12-person jury issued its verdicts: not guilty on all counts, except for one assault charge against Powell that ended in a hung jury. The acquittals touched off the L.A. riots, which grew into the most destructive U.S. civil disturbance of the 20th century.

1995- The Million Man march, On that day, Monday, October 16, 1995 there was a sea of Black men, many who stood for 10 hours or more sharing, learning, listening, fasting, hugging, crying, laughing, and praying. The day produced a spirit of brotherhood, love, and unity like never before experienced among Black men in America. All creeds and classes were present: Christians, Muslims, Hebrews, Agnostics, nationalists, pan-Africanists, civil rights organizations, fraternal organizations, rich, poor, celebrities and people from nearly every organization, profession and walk of life were present. It was a day of atonement, reconciliation and responsibility.

“The Million Man March was one of the most historic organizing and mobilizing events in the history of Black people in the United States,” said Chicago-based Dr. Conrad Worrill, who was a main organizer of the March and the current president emeritus of the National United Black Front.

1996-The Turn the Web Black protest, also called the Great Web Blackout, the Turn Your Web Pages Black protest, and Black Thursday, was a February 8–9, 1996, online activism action, led by the Voters’ Telecommunications Watch and the Center for Democracy and Technology, paralleling the longer-term Blue Ribbon Online Free Speech Campaign organized by the Electronic Frontier Foundation. It protested the Communications Decency Act (CDA), a piece of “rider” legislation for Internet censorship attached to the Telecommunications Act of 1996, and passed by the United States Congress on February 1, 1996. Timed to coincide with President Bill Clinton’s signing of the bill on February 8, 1996, a large number of web sites had their background color turned to black for 48 hours to protest the CDA’s curtailment of freedom of expression. Thousands of websites, including a number of major ones, joined in the protest. The campaign was noted by major media such as the CNN, Time magazine and The New York Times.

1997-On October 25, 1997, an estimated 750,000 African American women gathered together to march on the Ben Franklin Parkway in Philadelphia to focus on their trials, circumstances, and successes. The day-long march and program of prayer, music, and inspirational speeches, which began at the Liberty Bell and ended on the steps of the Philadelphia Museum of Art, sought to bring together African American women to address the pressing issues of interest to them and to black families. Some of these issues included the economic deterioration of African American communities, the importance of nurturing young children in a positive environment, finding a collective voice in politics and the civil rights movement, and strengthening black families. The march was designed to inspire African American women across the nation to work for their own improvement as well as that of their communities.

2008-Barack Obama Becomes 44th U.S. President, On January 20, 2009, Barack Obama was inaugurated as the 44th president of the United States; he is the first African American to hold that office. The product of an interracial marriage — his father grew up in a small village in Kenya, his mother in Kansas — Obama grew up in Hawaii but discovered his civic calling in Chicago, where he worked for several years as a community organizer on the city’s largely Black South Side. After studying at Harvard Law School and practicing constitutional law in Chicago, he began his political career in 1996 in the Illinois State Senate and in 2004 announced his candidacy for a newly vacant seat in the U.S. Senate. He delivered a rousing keynote speech at that year’s Democratic National Convention, attracting national attention with his eloquent call for national unity and cooperation across party lines. In February 2007, just months after he became only the third African American elected to the U.S. Senate since Reconstruction, Obama announced his candidacy for the 2008 Democratic presidential nomination. After withstanding a tight Democratic primary battle with Hillary Clinton, the New York senator and former first lady, Obama defeated Senator John McCain of Arizona in the general election that November. Obama’s appearances in both the primaries and the general election drew impressive crowds, and his message of hope and change — embodied by the slogan “Yes We Can” — inspired thousands of new voters, many young and Black, to cast their vote for the first time in the historic election. He was reelected in 2012. https://www.fs.fed.us/people/aasg/calendar/timeline.html.

2020-George Floyd Protests, The movement swelled to a critical juncture on May 25, 2020, in the midst of the COVID-19 epidemic when 46-year-old George Floyd died after being handcuffed and pinned to the ground by police officer Derek Chauvin.

Chauvin was filmed kneeling on Floyd’s neck for more than eight minutes. Floyd had been accused of using a counterfeit $20 bill at a local deli in Minneapolis. All four officers involved in the incident were fired and Chauvin was charged with second-degree murder, third-degree murder and second-degree manslaughter. The three other officers were charged with aiding and abetting murder. Floyd’s killing came on the heels of two other high-profile cases in 2020. On February 23, 25-year-old Ahmaud Arbery was killed while out on a run after being followed by three white men in a pickup truck. And on March 13, 26-year-old EMT Breonna Taylor, was shot eight times and killed after police broke down the door to her apartment while executing a nighttime warrant.

On May 26, 2020, the day after Floyd’s shooting, protestors in Minneapolis took to the streets to protest Floyd’s killing. Police cars were set on fire and officers released tear gas to disperse crowds. After months of quarantine and isolation during a global pandemic, protests mounted, spreading across the country in the following days.

Courtesy: http://slaverebellion.info/index.php?page=united-states-insurrections, https://www.naacp.org/naacp-history-w-e-b-dubois/. https://www.google.com/search?q=1920-+Universal+Negro+Improvement+Association+(UNIA)&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&hl=en-us&client=safari. https://www.noi.org/honorable-elijah-muhammad/. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_on_Washington_Movement. https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/congress-racial-equality-core. https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/montgomery-bus-boycott. https://thehilltoponline.com/2016/05/19/the-hilltop-archives-1961-malcolm-x-at-the-mecca/. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom. https://www.google.com/search?q=1966-Huey+P.+Newton. https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/million-woman-march-1997/.

+and+Bobby+Seale&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&hl=en-us&client=safari. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._Rap_Brown. https://www.biography.com/activist/ralph-d-abernathy. https://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/did-african-american-slaves-rebel/. https://www.noi.org/about-million-man-march/. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_World_Wide_Web_protest.

Sources:

Ferguson shooting victim Michael Brown. BBC.George Floyd Protests: A Timeline. The New York Times.Tamir Rice. PBS.org.The Matter of Black Lives. The New Yorker.The Hashtag Black Lives Matter. Pew Research.The Path to Eric Garner’s death. The New York Times.Timeline of Murder Trial of Amber Guyger. ABC.

List of National Resources Organization

1. The National Association for Black Veterans, Inc (NABVETS); with headquarters in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, is a 501c(3), nationally certified Veterans Service Organization by the Department of Veterans Affairs to assist veterans with filing claims for VA benefits and to represent veterans before the Board of Veterans Appeals

2. The Business Alliance (BBA), is a 501c6 non-profit membership organization; which seeks to EMPOWER, GUIDE, PROMOTE, ENHANCE, COLLABORATE and GROW small and medium sized black and minority businesses throughout Connecticut and Nationally by addressing the gap in business access to funding, educational resources and statewide capacity building. https://bbusinessalliance.org/about-us.

3. Center for Minority Veterans, https://www.va.gov/centerforminorityveterans/.

4. BLACK VETERANS FOR SOCIAL JUSTICE, https://bvsj.org/.

5. Black Veterans Project wants to disrupt the status quo by combating racial military inequalities, https://connectingvets.radio.com/articles/black-veterans-project-fighting-racial-military-disparities.

6. Center for Constitution Rights, https://ccrjustice.org/.

7. National Black United Fund, http://www.nbuf.org/.

8. National Black Survival Fund, https://www.twocc.us/our-work/community-funds/survival-fund/.

9. African American Leadership Council, https://compassionandchoices.org/about-us/leadership-board-committees/african-american-leadership-council/.

10. American Civil Liberties Union National Prison Project, https://www.nsvrc.org/organizations/193.

11. The National Urban League, https://nul.org/.

12. The Children Defense Fund, https://www.childrensdefense.org/.

13. National Association of Police Athletics League, https://www.nationalpal.org/.

14. National Youth Employment Coalition, https://nyec.org/.